What is the potential impact of immersive participatory simulation games
on students and teachers in an educational context?
Introduction
Dewey (1938) suggests that the goal of
education is not to prepare students for life, but for engagement with it. This
is increasingly challenging when the world is frequently being described with
terms such as constantly changing, rapidly evolving and uncertain. The
primary goal for education continues to drive educators to nurture every
student's potential to develop the knowledge, skills, and epistemologies
necessary for dealing with the complexities of the 21st century (Toppo, 2016).
There are clear indications that the future will certainly differ
dramatically from the past and our students will be expected to master
different forms of knowledge than our schools have traditionally demanded, to
grow as citizens and workers (Jenkins, 2007; Squire & Jan, 2007). It is
becoming more widely accepted that teachers should teach not only curricular
content but also competencies. The programmes should encourage and include the
use of the learning material in a variety of situations that students will face
in the real world, be problem-oriented, varied, interesting, sustainable and
motivate students to learn (Nordiclarp.org, 2015).
Professionals with an inherent interest
in education, including philosophers, psychologists and educators have endorsed
educational games, involving elements of play, to promote learning for
centuries (Vanek & Peterson, 2016). However, this form of
experiential learning is more commonly seen in programmes designed for younger
students, subsiding to more traditional forms of academic learning as students’
progress through the education system. The social nature of learning in
this way has also been supported by social constructivists who argue that we
all generate meaning from our experiences (Kolb, 1984; Andrés, Angeles &
García Casas, 2011).
Immersive participatory simulation
games (IPSG) are a sophisticated progression of such games, and are in a
relative state of infancy, however their rapid global adoption within the
entertainment industry and subsequent fusion into the educational sector,
warrants closer examination. This literature review defines the emerging
pedagogy of IPSG and examines their potential impact on the development of
student outcomes and skills within an educational context. The potential
implications IPSG have on teacher pedagogy are also examined and discussed.
Mātauranga Māori and Kaupapa Maori approaches are identified and situated
within the conclusion which positions this review alongside suggested areas of
future research within an educational context.
Immersive Participatory Simulation Games
Game-based learning initiatives have
been suggested as a future-focused methodology that can support immersive and
participatory pedagogy. Immersive participatory simulation games (IPSG)
situate learners in complex thinking tasks, driven by authentic questions and
real-world problems that require critical, creative and innovative thinking to
solve in a collaborative context (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux & Tuzum,
2005; Gee, 2004; Shaffer & Gee, 2005; Squire, 2005). They present students
with a series of challenges that ignite their natural drive to problem-solve
within a given role and scenario. IPSG are accessible to a wide range of
background knowledge, experiences, ages, genders, skills, physical abilities
and present a changing perspective of learning on the part of the students and
educators; embracing divergent learning goals and involving learning contexts
that are meaningful for students. They provide challenging opportunities
for students to develop and demonstrate determination and motivation while
encouraging them to believe their abilities can be developed through effort and
a positive belief in their capacity to learn (Ministry of Education, 2009).
Duke predicted the use of such games
within education in 1974, however we now see that these types of games did not
emerge as suddenly as he had envisaged (Duke, 1974). Only recently have
educators begun to see them as a future’s language, with great global impact,
across numerous different educational contexts including Primary, Secondary and
Tertiary education, as well as in public spaces such as Museums, Libraries and
Conferences.
Immersive participatory simulation
games (IPSG) present educators with an opportunity to incorporate social
constructivist theories within their programmes, with their focus on active
rather than passive or receptive learning, and are becoming an emerging type of
interdisciplinary curricula for supporting education (Barab & Dede, 2007).
While initially designed for entertainment purposes, they are now being
repurposed with an academic focus. This literature review combines the
findings from IPSG such as Escape Rooms, Live Action Role Playing (LARP) games,
edu-LARP, Nordic-LARP and BreakoutEDU, all of which have grown in popularity
rapidly in the last few years within educational contexts.
BreakoutEDU, for example, was
introduced to NZ through the EdTech Conference in 2016. Having first
reached the critical mass required to appear on Google Trends in 2006 before
lying dormant until rising sharply towards the end of 2015. It is now
followed actively by over 15,000 teachers from around the world in their online
Facebook community.
What is the potential impact of immersive participatory simulation games
on the development of student outcomes and skills in an educational context?
Student Motivation and Engagement
The most common theme to arise from the
literature, was the impact immersive participatory simulation games (IPSG) have
on student motivation and engagement towards and within learning. They are
identified as being a catalyst for improved student focus, drive, motivation,
engagement and even improve interest in a subject or topic of study. (Vanek
& Peterson, 2016; Bowman & Standiford, 2015; Sellar, 2012; Andrés et
al., 2011; Ihsen, Schneider, Wallhoff & Blume, 2011; Lantada, Morgado,
Munoz-guijosa, Otero, & Sanz, 2011; Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013). The
primary reason for this is largely to do with the fun involved in gaming.
Nordiclarp.org (2015) observed that fun makes learning easier and students are
more likely to take on challenges and less likely to become discouraged by falure.
Andrés et al (2011) support this by reporting that fun promotes learning by
generating joy, reiterated by the students studied who reported that they
learnt and had fun through experiential learning. These observations were also
reflected when students studied by Bowman and Standiford (2015) were observed
to experience increased enjoyment and interest in science through participation
in an Edu-Larp. It is the challenge and the aspect of “hard thinking”
which makes them so appealing and which causes the learning to become a
by-product of the task, rather than the end goal (McDowall, 2015). The level of
excitement experienced, compels students to continue discussing concepts and
learning outside of the gaming experience (Jung and Levitin, 2002). It is important
to note however, that in order to achieve these outcomes the motivation needs
to be sustained through reflection, active involvement and feedback and is also
highly dependent on the types of games the individual player finds enjoyable
(Andrés et al, 2011).
IPSG have also been shown to have a
significant effect on the motivation of students due to the component of
immersive role-play. These experiences enable students to disconnect from the
complex, trivial or boring nature of reality into something far more exciting,
comprehensible and epic (Sellar, 2012; Nordiclarp.org, 2015). Total immersion
in IPSG can create something referred to as flow, a natural state of learning
when motivation to complete tasks is at its peak, or defined as the “state of
absolute immersion into an activity, when concentration is effortless due to
the fact that the person is enjoying the activity” (Anglickeho et al, n.d, p.
23). In this state students can become less self-conscious (Wiemker, Elumir,
& Clare, 2015), feel safer to take risks in thinking, feeling or
reasoning without any negative repercussions (Nordiclarp.org, 2015) and are
invited to become personally embodied in the game (Rosenbaum, Klopfer &
Perry, 2007).
Although a lot was said around the
positive impact of immersion and enjoyment using IPSG to increase motivation
and engagement, Madigan (2010) warned that “not all games should strive to be
immersive” (p. 10 ). It was observed that certain scenarios may evoke
situations and emotions that bring up memories or experiences, wanted or not,
or make participants uncomfortable or feel psychologically unsafe (Nicholson,
2015; Anglickeho et al, n.d.). Teachers need to be aware that these situations
could be harmful to students Mana Atua, and can reveal some aspects of
personality that students were not aware of, as identified by Anglickeho et al
(n.d.), could also be perceived as both a negative and positive outcome
depending on the aspect revealed.
Real-World Problem Solving
Experiences which have direct
applications to real problems, by modeling aspects of real-world complex
systems, can give students opportunity to engage and interact, explore and
experiment within set parameters, learning how to manipulate these and
observing outcomes (Rosenbaum, 2007). This Mana Aotūroa allows students to
develop working theories for making sense of the natural, social, physical and
material worlds (Ministry of Education, 1996). IPSG help students to develop
the ability to reflect more carefully and accurately on their experiences,
enables them to visualise the complexity of real life processes and experiences
and therefore, should be employed in teaching (Duplessie, 2013; Anglickeho et
al, n.d.). They can provide a forum to explore multiple perspectives on a
problem (Christopher, 1999), test ideas, make connections, measure outcomes
(Rosenbaum, 2007 and Anglickeho et al, n.d.) and to effect changes as they see
fit (Madigan, 2010). There is a contradictory perspective though, with some
arguing that IPSG are not similar enough to real life and that participants
behave more informally or that the situations are gross simplifications as they
only include a few real-world factors (Christopher 1999; Anglickeho et al,
n.d.). Others, doubt the benefit for all students, as some may gain more from
the role they play than others (Jung and Levitin, 2002) or simply be passive or
even unwilling to participate altogether (Anglickeho et al, n.d.).
When role-play is utilised within this
context, students are no longer required to think and act like students but as
investigators, thinking, arguing and producing evidence and counter-evidence as
they participate in the world in new and interesting ways (Squire and Jan,
2007). IPSG enable students to explore, gain and trial the skills and
knowledge they need to achieve success which is the foundational principle of
Ka Hikitia (Ministry of Education, 2009) and is reflective of their lives
outside of the classroom. Although IPSG can force students to imagine
situations they have not previously experienced (Sellar, 2012), the contexts
are not always required to be completely unknown. Squire and Jan (2007) also
argue that playing a game in a familiar place encourages students to apply
knowledge, as well as challenging them to consider how abstract concepts might
play out. When meaningful problems are addressed and abstract content is placed
in a concrete, practical context, students can develop a contextual understanding
of facts and principles and these take on a tangible relevance (Barab and Dede,
2007; Nordiclarp.org, 2015).
Collaboration, Communication and the Development of Soft Skills
In our information-based economy
students require soft skills that traditional classroom practices do not teach
adequately (Dewey, 1938) such as teamwork, conflict resolution, problem solving
(Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013), Mana Tangata, Mana Reo (Ministry of Education,
1996), time management, critical thinking, empathy, and one of the most
important, accepting and learning from failure (Vanek & Peterson, 2016).
A valuable feature of immersive
participatory simulation games is that they are usually centered around
completing a task as a part of a collective. Emphasis is placed on cooperation
as a way of winning (Andrés et al, 2011), resulting in the perception of what
the goals are changing from knowledge-based to personal and team-based
(Rosenbaum, 2007). This leads to the development of cooperative and creative
skills and Mana Whenua (Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013). The current generation
of learners is growing up with exposure and immersion in technology which
impacts on their preferred learning style, so much so that it is often argued
that they now prefer active, collaborative learning, although it was stated in
one study that students, regardless of generation, agreed on the value of using
gaming in education (Bekebrede et al, 2010). It was also suggested that as the
IPSG environment is fictitious, players behave differently than they would in a
real collaborative situation, becoming less confrontational and being more
flexible and responsive to each other (Christopher, 1999).
Through rich discussion and
deliberation, students can experience the consequences of joint decisions in a
low-risk environment (Jones, 1980) and learn from each other as they may
benefit from the explanations of concepts, actions and decisions from their
peers (Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013). Duplessie (2013) states that we tend to
retain 90% of what we say and do compared with only 50% of what we see and
hear.
The engaging and interactive nature of
IPSG means that students readily engage in discussion (Rosenbaum, 2007) and use
language to turn their motivations into results (Sellar, 2012). The necessity
to negotiate a shared view of reality (Christopher, 1999) and participate in
the communicative process (Andrés et al, 2011) means that IPSG can also be an
effective language tool both for foreign languages (Jung and Levitin 2002) or
simply in the development of native oral language which is critical to later
academic success (Gee, 2004; Squire and Jan, 2007; Ministry of Education,
2009).
Construction of Knowledge
Despite a growing emphasis on soft
skills it is still important for students to be able to construct and
manipulate knowledge. Through the use of Immersive Participatory Simulation
Games (IPSG) students can develop understandings across a wide range of
subjects (Vanek & Peterson, 2016) and explicitly unpack and explore
concepts related to particular disciplines (Klopfer, Osterweil, & Salen,
2009; Groff, McColl, & Gilbert, 2016; Google Trends, 2016). There is a substantial body of research
around the impact IPSG have on students ability to construct knowledge and how
they can be valuable in skill development (Groff et al, 2016). IPSG
encourage students to engage in deep thinking, more so than they might
otherwise have done with more traditional methods of teaching (Squire and Jan,
2007 and MoE, 2016). Antonio Ferreira Randi (2013) notes that with greater
student interaction comes better performance in their construction of
knowledge, as students learn new pathways to consolidate what they know. They
also serve as the ideal way to integrate new knowledge into a student’s
previous network (Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013) and meets students, regardless
of ability, where they are at in their learning, serving as either an instructional
experience or as a place to practise and reinforce concepts (Bransford, Brown
& Cocking, 1999; Groff et al, 2016). Furthermore, they provide an ideal
environment in which to learn through trial and error, connecting content and
skills (Andrés et al, 2011; McDowall, 2015).
Some concerns arise with the use of
IPSG to teach however; students in one study were afraid of missing material or
not learning effectively (Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013) and Andrés et al (2011)
advises that some students learn from games while others simply do not. Squire
and Jan, (2007) observed that there is notable difference between the way
younger and older students engage in IPSG in the way that they transfer their
prior knowledge to solve problems.
Student literacy skills were notably
referred to as being challenged through IPSG, with observable increases in
comprehension (Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013), children reading substantially
above their level (Buckingham, 2003, Gee, 2003, Steinkuehler, 2005) and
students engaging in higher order thinking skills and behaviours such as
synthesizing, communicating, questioning and debating what they had read
(Squire & Jan, 2007). This is crucial to note as Māori students in English
medium schools continue to be more likely to have lower levels of achievement
in literacy, numeracy and science than non-Māori students (Ministry of
Education, 2009).
It would be easy to assume that IPSG
would be beneficial to Māori, who traditionally learnt through active methods,
based in a real-world context, or because Māori knowledge was historically
formed, shaped, constructed and transmitted through an oral tradition, however,
Te Mangaroa (2011) cautions against this type of convenient stereotyping,
stating that it is simply not accurate and does not apply to all Māori
students. It is critical in the wake of Maori underachievement in
education that Maori are engaged in programmes that reflect their unique
identity, capabilities and skills, are engaging, challenges their thinking,
accelerates their progress and supports them to select pedagogies that are most
closely aligned to their needs and help in the construction of knowledge
(Ministry of Education, 2009).
What are the implications of immersive participatory simulation games on
teacher pedagogy?
Changing trends in education are
fundamentally changing the way we think about learning, problem solving and
personal development (Burke, 2014) and therefore, are also changing the way
that teachers are presenting their learning programmes. Student engagement
in participatory games is just one of a number of forces that are reshaping the
way learning programmes are being presented to students. Interest in
immersive, participatory simulation games (IPSG) is at an all-time high, with
more educators choosing to incorporate a variety of games for learning in their
classrooms (Groff et al, 2016; Google Trends, 2016), as the educational system
is disrupted and primed for a transformational change (Burke, 2014). This
shift presents teachers with a challenge of developing tools that engage
students and increase active participation and critical thinking rather than
emphasising the memorisation of scientific concepts and facts (Antonio Ferreira
Randi, 2013).
The Ministry of Education propose that
the inclusion of games of this nature in educational programmes present an
opportunity for teachers to think differently about learning, and about what
students and teachers might be doing (Ministry of Education, 2016). IPSG
have developed a reputation with educationalists around the world, and are
perceived as a potentially engaging form of supplementary learning that could
enhance the educational process and has been used at all level of education
including primary, secondary and tertiary education (Hainey, Connolly, Boyle,
Wilson, & Razak, 2016), although Vanek and Peterson (2016) argue that this
is simply a new name for a pedagogical technique which has been used throughout
the world for centuries.
The best teaching methods change the
teacher too (Sellar, 2012); when IPSG are used within the classroom programme,
Andrés et al (2011) has found that the time devoted to the more traditional
form of transmissive education and lecturing is reduced, and teachers are
actually teaching less. Groff et al (2016) propose that this is one of
the reasons that the inclusion of games in the classroom is discouraged in some
schools. Interestingly, even with the reduced teaching time, IPSG are still
having a positive result on student outcomes (Andrés et al, 2011). The
teacher's role within this methodology changes but remains essential in
guiding, facilitating and encouraging students to learn from the experience
(Andrés et al, 2011).
The importance of the teacher’s
influence on the success of this methodology is supported in the findings of
Antonio Ferreira Randi (2013) and Anglickeho et al (n.d.) who assert that the
cooperative learning experience is heavily impacted by the teacher’s discourse,
beliefs and enthusiasm, finding that a teacher's positive attitude is vital.
Antonio Ferreira Randi’s (2013) work has identified that a large number
of teachers continue to be orthodox and reluctant to change their teaching
style and cautions that this resistance to new methodologies can constrain
teacher participation and attitudes. Groff et al (2016) suggests that
this may be the result of a lack of teachers own experience and understanding
of games for learning. Andrés et al also warns that these games can be time
consuming (2011), and this can act as a barrier to a teacher's desire to include
IPSG in their programme. Simulations require considerable time and effort
on the part of the teacher (Jung and Levitin, 2002) and teachers need to be
very well prepared because students tend to ask more questions when actively
participating than when passively listening (Antonio Ferreira Randi, 2013).
However, the benefit of this methodology is celebrated and continues to
remain the main teaching tools in some nordic schools (Anglickeho et al, n.d.).
It is therefore important to ensure that the potential impacts of these
games are shared with teachers, students, administrators, school leaders and
parents who also need to understand the pedagogical impact of playing IPSG
(SIIA, 2009). This is particularly important for Maori, for whom whānau
hold an integral role in the learning and development of children (Ministry of
Education, 2009).
IPSG can provide a powerful mechanism
for capturing rich data on student learning (Phillips & Popovic 2012);
however, there is still considerable work to be done to ensure more robust
models of assessment-based games are designed and in examining how they might
play out in an educational context (Groff et al, 2016). Andrés et al (2011)
promotes the potential of these types of games in the acquisition and
development of soft skills and suggests that teachers could use IPSG to assess
student outcomes that reflect these skills alongside the content of the game.
Farber (2016) presents a more traditional perspective suggesting that
teachers should look to assess the learning transfer that has been facilitated
within the game experience back to the various content areas of the curriculum.
Royal (1993) argues both of these areas are of equal importance, and
explains the traditional Maori conceptualisation of the mind (hinengaro) as
having two parts: Te Puna Mahara and Te Puna Wananga in which both of these
types of knowledge are reflected.
There are numerous varying perspectives
of the role of assessment within this methodology, however it is commonly
agreed by researchers and educationalists that teachers do need assurance that
the experience prepared for their students involves quality learning outcomes
and will provide them with meaningful information related to the effect they
have on student performance. Regardless of whether these experiences are
used to support key curriculum concepts, or the acquisition of future skills
required by our students, with IPSG still in a state of infancy, it is widely
agreed that there is a lack of quantitative data and assessment feedback from
these types of games (Groff et al, 2016). It is hoped that as teachers
are trained and gain more experience with IPSG, they will produce better
results in terms of the students’ quantitative performance (Antonio Ferreira
Randi, 2013; Anglickeho et al, n.d.).
Conclusion and suggested areas for
future research
The introduction of immersive
participatory simulation games is relatively new to the educational context,
and as such research in this area is limited. While this literature review
shows that IPSG have been found to be a powerful tool for education, it is also
clear that more attention, awareness and study is needed. It would be
beneficial for a wider body of IPSG to be studied and compared for its
educational capabilities and to further examine how it compares to more
traditional pedagogy.
Analysis of those IPSG that have been
successful would be advantageous in determining how these games could be better
included in teaching and learning programmes, and how they can be used to
target and support learning outcomes and identified student needs. In
order to do this, educators need to establish parameters to determine a shared
understanding of what constitutes a successful game experience. The
development and design of usability tests that measure the degree of
improvement in students learning outcomes and the development of skills would
also be beneficial, as evidence of effectiveness and improved student outcomes
will become increasingly important as these games continue to increase in
popularity and schools continue to seek assessments using evidence-centered
methodologies.
Much of the literature reviewed in this
study has talked about the engaging aspects of IPSG and the positive impact
this has had on student learning and experience. Educators are likely to
find further research examining the correlation between their level of
engagement and enthusiasm for using IPSG, to the level of excitement
transferred to students interesting. It would also be beneficial to examine how
we can harness the engagement and motivation for learning experienced within
IPSG into other contexts, and what this would look like. However, in
order for this to be widely adopted, work also needs to be done that addresses
the needs and barriers of IPSG on educators, and their students. This
research then needs to be shared with the growing global community who already
show an interest in this developing pedagogical approach, increasing
opportunities to better share good practice, grow knowledge and increase
evidence of their impact within an educational context.
Although the New Zealand Council for
Educational Research has commenced research into the use of games for learning,
there is no available research that examines the use of immersive participatory
simulation games in a New Zealand educational context, and there is also no
research that specifically addresses how the needs and academic outcomes of our
Maori and Pasifika learners could be improved through such approaches. The open
nature and ability to design IPSG to reflect the needs of all children provides
an opportunity to connect Maori aspirations, philosophies, processes and
pedagogies to political, social, economic and cultural wellbeing (Hemara, 2000;
Ka'ai & Higgins, 2004; Ministry of Education, 1996, Ministry of Education,
2009). This is particularly important as the primary and secondary
education focus areas cover the largest number of Māori students in formal
education. The complexity of Maori pedagogy presents a multitude of
possibilities for those that are willing and committed to bringing about
positive change for Maori within education (Pihama, Smith, Taki & Lee,
2004). As such, specific research into the potential impact IPSG
has on our students with diverse cultural and educational needs would be
beneficial and timely, as innovative approaches to education that are engaging,
effective, enjoyable, rewarding and positive continue to be sought for students
who are identified to be at risk of disengaging and falling behind academically
(Ministry of Education, 2009).
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